BEIJING OLYMPICS

China realized its Olympic goal on July 13, 2001, when the International Olympic Committee voted to make Beijing the host city for the 2008 Olympics. Having won the right to host the Olympics, the city of Beijing splurged on preparations for tens of thousands of visitors. Taxi drivers were taught English. The city constructed new subways and light rails, new highways, and a new airport terminal. Construction sites appeared all over the city. The Chinese government contracted with world-famous architects to build a new Olympic stadium, dubbed the Bird’s Nest, for its intricate steel webbing, and a swimming site known as the Water Cube because of its unique exterior.

The Beijing Olympics opened on August 8, 2008, with a total of 10,500 athletes from every one of the 204 member nations of the International Olympic Committee except Brunei. In the competitions, China led the world in gold medals with 51; the United States was second with 36, followed by Russia with 23 and Great Britain with 19. Chinese athletes accumulated 100 medals overall. China did best in gymnastics, earning 11 gold medals, while garnering 8 in weightlifting, 7 in diving, 4 in shooting, 4 in table tennis, and 3 in badminton.

Adapted from: "Olympics, 2008 Beijing Olympic Games." Encyclopedia of Modern China, edited by David Pong, vol. 3, Charles Scribner's Sons, 2009, pp. 54-57

"Surviving the Curse of the Olympics." International Herald Tribune [European Edition], 24 Jan. 2008

Aenlle, Conrad de. "Clouds Gather in China over Growth and Games." International Herald Tribune [European Edition], June 14, 2008-June 15, 2008

"The Big Loser in Beijing: Human Rights." International Herald Tribune [European Edition], 25 Aug. 2008



HIROSHIMA AND THE ATOM BOMB

At roughly 8:15 in the morning of August 6th 1945, the Japanese city of Hiroshima was destroyed by the first atomic bomb, swiftly followed by Nagasaki, in an attack of such magnitude it is widely credited as the event that led to the end of World War II. At least 192,000 people are estimated to have died in the two bombings, with exposure-related medical conditions continuing for years afterwards.

The aftereffects of the bomb lasted for decades, with hibakusha (roughly translated as ‘victims of the atomic bomb’) being offered free medical treatment into the twenty-first century, and the Radiation Effects Research Foundation (previously the Atomic Bomb Casualty Commission from 1947 to 1975) using Hiroshima as a base for research on the long-term effects of radiation exposure.

The city has recovered in subsequent years: significant reconstruction began in 1950, and Hiroshima is now one of the largest industrial centres in the Chūgoku and Shikoku regions, with significant companies building headquarters in the city, notably the Mazda Motor Corporation. In 1996 the Genbaku dōmu (Atomic Bomb Dome) was designated a UNESCO World Heritage site, and a commemorative service is held on August 6 each year in the Peace Memorial Park.

the Herald Tribune Bureau. "Secret of Nature Solved to Rain Ruin on Enemy." New York Herald Tribune [European Edition], 7 Aug. 1945

Johnson, Mac R., and Special to the European Edition. "60% of Hiroshima in Ruins from New Weapon's Blow." New York Herald Tribune [European Edition], 9 Aug. 1945

"Survivors of Explosion Had Grotesque Burns." New York Herald Tribune [European Edition], 12 Sept. 1946



HONG KONG HANDOVER

After 156 years of British rule, midnight on the 30th June 1997 saw the transition to the Hong Kong special administrative region (HKSAR) of the People’s Republic of China, with Hong Kong officially transferring to Chinese sovereignty.

The transition process had begun 13 years previously, with the Sino-British Joint Declaration on the Question of Hong Kong being signed by the two governments in December 1984. The relationship had run steadily until the appointment of Chris Patten (1944-present) as Governor of Hong Kong in 1992, who introduced many policies designed to introduce democratic elections to the Legislative Council, that would have given the population of Hong Kong a greater voice in the running of the country – China saw this a going back on earlier agreements, and voted to have the Legislative Council disbanded. There were many concerns in Hong Kong and abroad that China would not stick to the "one country, two systems" plan, fearing that China would reduce and limit the rights of Hong Kong’s residents, imposing a similar method of rule used in Singapore.

After a lavish ceremony attended by important political figures, the handover went ahead as planned, and – despite the concerns - Hong Kong remained stable for several months after the handover was complete.

Patten, Chris. "China Would Be Wise to Listen to Hong Kong Public Opinion." International Herald Tribune [European Edition], 15 Apr. 1997

Gargan, Edward A. "Saying Good-Bye to Colonial Era." International Herald Tribune [European Edition], 25 Apr. 1997

The Washington Post. "Hong Kong Handover." International Herald Tribune [European Edition], 30 June 1997



KHMER ROUGE

The Khmer Rouge were a radical movement that ruled Cambodia from 1975 to 1979, during which time an estimated 1.5 to 2 million Cambodians died. The atrocities prompted a joint operation between the United Nations and the government of Cambodia - the Khmer Rouge Tribunal – which began indicting former leaders and key figures in 2007.

In 1951 the Khmer People’s Revolutionary Party was founded, eventually becoming the Communist Party of Kampuchea. After years of clandestine activity against Prince Norodom Sihanouk (1922-2012), the King of Cambodia, the Khmer Rouge entered into a coalition with Sihanouk, gaining more support from countryside followers due to Sihanouk’s popularity. A civil war ran from 1970 to 1975 while the support grew, culminating in the Khmer Rouge successfully taking Phnom Penh in 1975 and establishing a national government.

The Khmer’s leader, Pol Pot (1925-1998) became Prime Minister, until invading Vietnamese troops deposed the Khmer Rouge in 1979, though the Coalition Government of Democratic Kampuchea (incorporating the remains of the Khmer Rouge) were internationally recognized as the government of Cambodia until 1993. In 1997, after years of continued guerrilla fighting, Pol Pot was arrested, before he died in 1998.

Allman, T. D. "Cambodia Teeters near Civil War." International Herald Tribune [European Edition], 1 Apr. 1970

Butterfield, Fox. "Leader Says Cambodia Is Thriving." International Herald Tribune [European Edition], 30 Sept. 1977

McArthur, George. "Cambodia Purges Said to Continue." International Herald Tribune [European Edition], 9 Dec. 1977



MO YAN’S NOBEL PRIZE IN LITERATURE

The 2012 Nobel Prize in Literature was awarded to Chinese author Mo Yan (1955-present), a prolific and compelling novelist and short-fiction writer. He was the first Chinese national to win the award and the second Chinese-language author (émigré writer Gao Xingjian (1940-present) won the Nobel Prize in 2000, but he had settled in France). Like Gao, Mo established his reputation in the mid-1980s as a vibrant and innovative voice in contemporary Chinese literature; the emerging influence of modernism had awakened artistic expression repressed by the accepted norm of social and political ideology.

He was born Guan Moye on Feb. 17, 1955, to a peasant family in Gaomi, Shandong province. While in the military he worked as a librarian, and, drawn to literature, he began writing stories under the nom de plume Mo Yan, which means “don't speak”; the pseudonym aptly reflected the childhood admonition instilled in him by his parents to avoid verbal communication in public. Throughout his career Mo found inspiration from the wondrous stories he heard as a child from an extended family that valued the art of storytelling, and he returned repeatedly in his fiction to a nostalgic rendering of the past as a means to reconcile with and embrace the present.

Adapted from: "Nobel Prizes." Britannica Book of the Year 2013, Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2013, pp. 64-68

Lyall, Sarah, and Andrew Jacobs. "Novelist from China Gets Nobel for Literature." International Herald Tribune [European Edition], 12 Oct. 2012

Lovell, Julia. "Mo Yan's Creative Space." International Herald Tribune [European Edition], 16 Oct. 2012

Lagerkvist, Johan. "A Chinese Laureate's Tale of Free Speech." International Herald Tribune [European Edition], 19 Dec. 2012
 

CHERNOBYL REACTOR DISASTER

On April 25-29 1986, a series of experiments led to a catastrophic accident at the Chernobyl nuclear power station, with the lid being blown off reactor 4 followed by a partial meltdown of the reactor. In the immediate aftermath, the Soviet Union attempted to cover up the accident, but the eventual revelation of the incident led to international condemnation, and raised concerns about the safety and use of nuclear power.

The radiation released into the atmosphere was greater than that caused by the atom bombs in Hiroshima and Nagasaki, and had economic and environmental consequences for several years afterwards, including births of deformed livestock and expectations of significant cancer-related deaths. Aftereffects in vegetation and plant life were forecast to last up to a century after the release of the radiation, and the movement of livestock as far away as the United Kingdom was in effect until 2012.

Although only just over 30 deaths occurred initially, many more contracted radiation sickness which caused deaths later on. Thousands of people were evacuated from the area, and the remaining reactors were progressively closed over the next fourteen years, with the station fully decommissioned in 2000.

Compiled by Our Staff from Dispatches. "Nuclear Accident at Soviet Plant Causes Injuries." International Herald Tribune [European Edition], 29 Apr. 1986

Schmemann, Serge, and New York Times Service. "Soviet Information Blackout: Blow to Gorbachev's New Style." International Herald Tribune [European Edition], 2 May 1986

Silk, Leonard, and New York Times Service. "Chernobyl Disaster Shows Vulnerability of Economy." International Herald Tribune [European Edition], May 3, 1986-May 4, 1986



FALL OF THE BERLIN WALL

The Berlin Wall divided East and West Berlin for twenty-nine years, acting as a physical and intellectual barrier between the two sides of the city, and of Europe. After the East German Volkskammer signed a decree on August 12th 1961, construction began over the following two days, and by the early 1980s the structure extended for 28 miles (45 km) through the city.

The plan was triggered by socio-economic concerns: between 1949 and 1961, an increasing ‘brain drain’ in East Germany threatened its economic stability. Around 2.5 million East Germans left for the West, including trained professionals and intellectuals. As a result, the East decided to stem the flow by erecting a physical barrier, blocking East German’s access to the West.

After a series of revolutions in Eastern European countries, in 1989 the leadership of East Germany was forced from power, and on 9th November the borders between East and West were opened. Parts of the Wall were opened, and people could travel freely between the two sides. The physical demolition of the Wall happened between 1990 and 1992.

Coblentz, Gaston, and Special to the Herald Tribune. "Reds Building Wall across Berlin." New York Herald Tribune [European Edition], August 19, 1961-August 20, 1961

Broder, David S. "Start Planning for a New Era and a New Germany." International Herald Tribune [European Edition], 15 Nov. 1989

Fisher, Marc. "Thousands Throng Brandenburg Gate." International Herald Tribune [European Edition], December 23-24-25, 1989



THE NUREMBERG TRIALS

In 1945 and 1946, several former Nazi leaders were indicted and tried by the International Military Tribunal. The trials were held in Nuremburg, Germany, following the London Agreement in 1945.

The defendants were tried against four counts: crimes against peace; crimes against humanity; war crimes; and “a common plan or conspiracy to commit” any of the other three. The tribunal could also find any group or organization to be criminal in character (such as the Gestapo), and therefore any member could be brought to trial.

Twenty-four defendants were originally tried, with the verdict on twenty-two of them delivered on October 1 1946 (one had committed suicide, and another was deemed too ill to face trial). Of the twenty-two, three were acquitted, three were sentenced to life imprisonment, and four to sentences of up to twenty years. The remaining twelve were sentenced to death by hanging, and ten were executed on October 16 1946 (Hermann Göring (1894-1946) committed suicide, and Martin Bormann (1900-c.1945) was sentenced in absentia).

Cook, Don, and the Herald Tribune Bureau. "Officials to View Nuremberg as Scene of War Crime Trials." New York Herald Tribune [European Edition], 22 July 1945

Higgins, Marguerite, and Special to the European Edition. "War Crime Court Scheduled to Hold First Meeting Today." New York Herald Tribune [European Edition], 9 Oct. 1945

Higgins, Marguerite, and Special to the European Edition. "Hess Says Amnesia Was All a Fake." New York Herald Tribune [European Edition], 1 Dec. 1945



THE SPANISH CIVIL WAR

During the early twentieth century, social divisions began to intensify in Spain: they roughly divided into the Nationalists (predominantly Roman Catholics, and largely affluent), and the Republicans (largely the labourers and urban workers).

The increasing division led to a military revolt against the Republican government, with a failed military coup resulting in a civil war that lasted from 1936 to 1939. In October 1936, General Francisco Franco (1892-1975) was named head of state, after becoming a prominent figure among many of the Nationalist forces. Both sides sought help from abroad: the Nationalists received aid from Italy and Germany, and the Republicans from the Soviet Union and volunteer forces from Europe and the United States.

After gradually taking Madrid and most of northern Spain by early 1939, the Nationalist forces had caused large numbers of Republicans fighters (as well as civilians) to flee over the border to France, followed by the Republican government in March. By the end of March, the Republican armies had begun to disband and surrender. 

"The Tragedy in Spain." New York Herald Tribune [European Edition], 24 July 1936

Havas Agency. "All Spain Now Held by Franco; Resistance Completely Collapses." New York Herald Tribune [European Edition], 30 Mar. 1939

Whitman, Alden. "Spain's Franco: Dec. 4, 1892-Nov. 20, 1975." International Herald Tribune [European Edition], 21 Nov. 1975



SPUTNIK SATELLITES

In 1957, the Soviet Union launched the first of ten satellites that are considered to have started the ‘space age’. The first of these—Sputnik 1—was launched on October 4 1957, achieving Earth orbit and circling the Earth until early 1958.

Sputnik II launched on November 3 1957, and was the first to contain a living creature: Laika, a dog, became the first living entity to orbit the Earth. These were followed by further inhabited satellites to test the life support systems designed to work on space travel.

The launch of the Sputnik series of satellites prompted the United States to increase their commitment to space exploration, leading the president John F. Kennedy (1917-1963) laying down the challenge to the US space programme to put a man on the moon by the end of the decade.

Yesterday's New York Edition. "Sputnik and Vanguard." New York Herald Tribune [European Edition], 8 Oct. 1957

Yesterday's New York Edition. "The Voice of the Satellite." New York Herald Tribune [European Edition], 9 Oct. 1957

Cutler, B. J. "Sputnik Has Made 100 Revolutions." New York Herald Tribune [European Edition], October 12-13, 1957
 

BANGLADESH’S INDEPENDENCE

In August 1947, India was granted independence within the British Commonwealth and was divided into the dominions of India and Pakistan. Pakistan was itself divided with West Pakistan comprising the area now known as Pakistan, and East Pakistan, occupying what had been Eastern Bengal. West Pakistan was politically and economically dominant over East Pakistan, giving rise to a secessionist movement in the eastern province. Despite attempts to ease the tensions, these factions gradually grew into open hostility and in 1971 a brief but bloody civil war flared up that lasted for 2 weeks and ended with the intervention of Indian troops. On 17 December 1971 a new government in Dhaka declared the independence of the new state, Bangladesh.

Bangladesh experienced a number of military coups after achieving independence in 1971, and several military governments tried to restrict activities of political parties. However, after the return to civil rule in 1990, all political parties may openly function in the country. In 1991, the first free and fair election was held in Bangladesh. Begum Khaleda Zia (1945-present) won the election. The new government brought radical changes to the economic policy, promoting private entrepreneurship, especially among representatives of poor communities, and supporting small- and medium-size businesses and privatization. This program was successful, and Bangladesh experienced economic growth throughout the 1990s.

Adapted from: Abazov, Rafis. "Bangladesh." Worldmark Encyclopedia of National Economies, edited by Sara Pendergast and Tom Pendergast, vol. 3: Asia & the Pacific, Gale, 2002, pp. 41-55

"After the Fighting." International Herald Tribune [European Edition], 20 Dec. 1971

Schanberg, Sydney H. "Bangladesh: 'God Bless You!' Said a Weeping Man to an Indian." International Herald Tribune [European Edition], 20 Dec. 1971

The Washington Post. "Bangladesh." International Herald Tribune [European Edition], January 15, 1972-January 16, 1972



BHOLA CYCLONE

On November 12 19670, the deadliest tropical cyclone on record hit the Ganges-Brahmaputra delta in East Pakistan. Estimates of the death toll vary from 300,000 to 500,000, with the Tazumuddin Upazila (the worst affected area) seeing 45% of its population killed.

The remnants of Tropical Storm Nora had moved from the South China Sea over the Malay Peninsula on November 5th, and contributed to the formation of a new depression in the Bay of Bengal on November 8th. The storm made landfall on the east coast of Pakistan at high tide on November 12th, causing an accompanying storm surge that flooded large areas. Of the casualties, most died from drowning in the floods. The immediate aftermath had a significant effect on the history of the country: the heavily criticized response to the disaster contributed to a change in government a few weeks after the cyclone, and the deteriorating political condition culminated in a war that saw East Pakistan become independent in 1971 under the name it is now known: Bangladesh.

It was also a decisive factor in improved natural disaster responses: the League of Red Cross Societies drafted a new plan for disaster response in similar areas, and later the UN General Assembly adopted proposals for improved aid provision to avoid similar fallout in the future.

"50,000 Feared Dead in Pakistan Storm." International Herald Tribune [European Edition], 16 Nov. 1970

"Pakistan Forces Go on War Basis to Help 2.2 Million Flood Victims." International Herald Tribune [European Edition], 17 Nov. 1970

Schanberg, Sydney H. "Fears of Cholera Epidemic Mounting in East Pakistan." International Herald Tribune [European Edition], 24 Nov. 1970



BHOPAL GAS DISASTER

On December 3 1984, thousands of people were killed in Bhopal, India, after 45 tonnes of methyl isocyanate escaped from an insecticide plant. The final death toll is estimated to be between 15,000 and 20,000 people, with several hundred thousand survivors suffering a range of medical complications from blindness to respiratory problems. 

Tens of thousands attempted to flee Bhopal as the gas drifted through densely populated neighbourhoods around the plant: investigators later concluded that substandard operating and safety procedures, coupled with understaffing, caused the leak. In 2010, several former Union Carbide executives (the American owners of the plant at the time of the disaster) were convicted of negligence.

As late as the early twenty-first century, over 400 tonnes of industrial waste were still present at the Bhopal site, with reports of ongoing health issues and high rates of birth defects attributed to elevated levels of soil and water contamination.

Reuters. "Hundreds Die in India after Poison Gas Leak." International Herald Tribune [European Edition], 4 Dec. 1984

Hazarika, Sanjoy. "In Bhopal, the Suffering Flood the Hospitals." International Herald Tribune [European Edition], 7 Dec. 1984

Stevens, William K. "Few Long-Term Effects Seen for Indian Gas Victims." International Herald Tribune [European Edition], 18 Dec. 1984



THE GANDHI ASSASSINATIONS

Mohandas Gandhi (1869-1948) played a pivotal role in India’s move for independence, leading the Indian independence movement. His advocacy and example of nonviolent civil disobedience became inspirational to many subsequent movements worldwide, and has had a lasting cultural impact. He was assassinated on January 30 1948 by Nathuram Godse (1910-1949), a Hindu nationalist.

Indira Gandhi (1917-1984) – no relation to Mohandas – served as prime minister from 1966 until 1977, and again from 1980 until her assassination in 1984. She was the first female prime minister of India, and was noted for her strong leadership and centralising policies. She was assassinated in October 1984 by Sikh nationalists working as her bodyguards.

Rajiv Gandhi (1944-1991) – son of Indira – served as Prime Minister from 1984 until 1991. He was sworn in to office following the assassination of his mother, becoming the youngest prime minister of India. His tenure was marked by many incidents, including the Bhopal gas disaster and the Bofors scandal. He was assassinated by a suicide bomber in May 1991, in an explosion that also killed over twenty other people during election campaigning.

Parton, Margaret, and Special to the European Edition. "Gandhi Is Assassinated by Hindu; Assembly Votes Gold Trading Bill." New York Herald Tribune [European Edition], 31 Jan. 1948

Stevens, William K. "Gandhi Is Killed; 2 Sikhs Are Blamed." International Herald Tribune [European Edition], 1 Nov. 1984

James, Barry. "Tragedy Pursues a Powerful Family: 3 Dead in 11 Years." International Herald Tribune [European Edition], 22 May 1991



INDIA’S INDEPENDENCE

On April 13, 1919, British troops fired on a peaceful protest in the city of Amritsar in northern India. An estimated one thousand people were killed and another fifteen hundred injured. In the wake of the massacre, many of those who had previously been content to live under British rule began to rally on the side of those supporting independence.  The INC (Indian National Congress party) leader, Mohandas Gandhi (1869–1948), launched a campaign of nonviolent protest and non-cooperation with British rule. In 1929 the INC created a resolution asking Britain to give India full independence and promised a new campaign of civil disobedience if the petition was not granted.

On August 16, 1946, the Direct Action Day ended in a week-long violent clash between Muslims and Hindus in Calcutta that left four thousand people dead. The violence spread throughout the country, and was enough to convince the British government that it could no longer maintain order in India. In 1947 the British viceroy, Lord Mountbatten (1900–1979), announced that India would be given independence. On August 14, 1947, independent Pakistan came into being, led by Mohammad Ali Jinnah (1876–1948) as governor-general. Just after midnight on August 15, INC leader Jawaharlal Nehru (1889–1964) proclaimed India's independence.

Adapted from: "India Gains Independence from Great Britain." Global Events: Milestone Events Throughout History, edited by Jennifer Stock, vol. 2: Asia and Oceania, Gale, 2014, pp. 362-365

the Associated Press. "India Assembly Votes to Form Full Republic." New York Herald Tribune [European Edition], 23 Jan. 1947

Tait, Jack, and the Herald Tribune Bureau. "Attlee Speeds India Freedom Bill's Passage." New York Herald Tribune [European Edition], 11 July 1947

"India Now Free Nation, New Regime Issues Plea for Hindu-Moslem Ties." New York Herald Tribune [European Edition], 16 Aug. 1947
 

BOGOTÁ AND LA VIOLENCIA

During the 1930s and early 1940s, Liberal governments had run Colombia. During this time, Conservatives felt marginalised and were physically attacked: in 1946, the Conservative Mariano Ospina Pérez (1891-1976) became leader, beating the two liberal candidates --Gabriel Turbay (1901-1947) and Jorge Eliécer Gaitán (1903-1948).

Reprisals against Liberals marked the beginning of a period called “La Violencia”, largely sparked by the assassination of Gaitán in 1948. The assassination in Bogotá led to the bogotazo riots across the country, and estimates suggest that over 200,000 were killed between 1946 and 1964. The situation worsened under Laureano Gómez (1889-1965), who attempted to turn Colombia into a fascist state, and he was eventually deposed by a military coup, with Gustavo Rojas Pinilla (1900-1975) taking the presidency in 1953, himself ousted by a military junta in 1957. 

The Declaration of Stiges (1957) meant that the presidency would be alternated between Liberal and Conservative, and remained in place until 1973. Economic strains, increasing unemployment and rising guerrilla groups strained public confidence during these years, leading to the rise of groups such as FARC (the Fuerzas Armadas Revolucionarias de Colombia), who would have significant impact on late twentieth-century Colombian history.

the Associated Press. "Mob Rules in Colombia after Riots in Bogota; Liberal Leader Is Slain." New York Herald Tribune [European Edition], 10 Apr. 1948

the Associated Press. "Bogota Command Assumed by Junta." New York Herald Tribune [European Edition], May 11-12, 1957

Baehr, Harry. "'La Violencia' in Colombia." New York Herald Tribune [European Edition], 20 Feb. 1961



“CHE” GUEVARA

Ernesto Guevara de la Serna (1928-1967), better known as “Che” Geuvara, was a prominent figure in the Cuban Revolution, and guerrilla leader in South America. During his medical studies, he travelled extensively throughout South America, and his experiences were pivotal in forming his philosophy that revolution was the solution to the various social problems. His experience of a CIA-supported overthrow of Jacobo Arbenz (1913-1971) in Guatemala in 1954 prompted Guevara to bring about socialism by revolution.

He left for Mexico and met brothers Fidel (1926-2016) and Raúl Castro (1931-present), and after the successful campaign to overthrow Fulgencio Batista (1901-1973) in Cuba, Guevara served in various notable positions in the new government. After becoming disillusioned, he left Cuba: after supporting various efforts in Africa, he travelled to Bolivia, where he was detained and killed by the Bolivian army in 1967. Guevara has served as a strong symbol in both revolutionary politics and popular culture since his death, and debates about his life and legacy continue to this day.

"Ché Guevara Takes Over." New York Herald Tribune [European Edition], 28 Feb. 1961

"Che Guevara Slain in Clash, Bolivia Officially Announces." International Herald Tribune [European Edition], 10 Oct. 1967

The New York Times. "Guevara: Man and Myth." International Herald Tribune [European Edition], 13 Oct. 1967



GENERAL AUGUSTO PINOCHET

In 1973, General Augusto Pinochet Ugarte (1915-2006) led the military junta that deposed Salvador Allende (1908-1973) as the president of Chile, and led the military government from 1974 until 1990.

During his tenure (and beyond), Pinochet’s regime was accused of torturing opposition and condemned for its suppression tactics, but inversely during the late 1970s Chile saw an economic boom due to the policies put in place by the government. Despite a recession in the early 1980s, Chile’s economy stayed largely stable during Pinochet’s rule. Despite losing a referendum in 1988, Pinochet stayed in power until the free elections in 1990, and was succeeded by Patricio Alwyn (1918-2016).

During a visit to London in 1998, Pinochet was arrested after Spain requested his extradition, on the grounds of accusations of torture of Spanish citizens in Chile during his presidency. The international interest sparked several major investigations, and in 2000 he was stripped of his diplomatic immunity, but charges were dropped in 2002 after he was deemed mentally incapable of defending himself in court. He was ruled capable of standing trial for illegal financial dealing among other charges in 2005, but died in 2006.

Wire Dispatches. "Chile Junta Ousts Allende." International Herald Tribune [European Edition], 12 Sept. 1973

Compiled by Our Staff from Dispatches. "Democracy Returns to Chile after 16 Years as Pinochet Bows Out." International Herald Tribune [European Edition], 12 Mar. 1990

Kandell, Jonathan. "Pinochet, Dictator Who Ruled Chile, Dies." International Herald Tribune [European Edition], 11 Dec. 2006



NOBEL PRIZES IN LITERATURE

The Latin American Literary Boom happened during the 1960s and 1970s, when major shifts in the work produced in the region gained international attention, and gave Latin America a unique and original voice in world literature.

The political turmoil across Latin America in these years changed the way literature and history were approached and interpreted, with many novelists, poets and playwrights using their work to explore the turbulent conditions, often moving toward modernist literary styles. The resulting interest led many works to be translated into numerous languages, allowing them to gain critical acclaim and distribution outside of Latin America.

As a result, many of the notable authors of the boom have won prestigious international prizes, including several authors to win the Nobel Prize in Literature: Colombian author Gabriel García Márquez (1927-2014) won the prize in 1982, Mexican poet Octavio Paz (1914-1998) won the prize in 1990, and Peruvian author Mario Vargas Llosa (1936-present) won the prize in 2010.

Vinocur, John, and New York Times Service. "Colombian Is Awarded Nobel Literature Prize." International Herald Tribune [European Edition], 22 Oct. 1982

Rule, Sheila. "Nobel in Literature Goes to Octavio Paz." International Herald Tribune [European Edition], 12 Oct. 1990

Bosman, Julie, and Simon Romero. "A Nobel Infused with Politics." International Herald Tribune [European Edition], 8 Oct. 2010



THE PANAMA CANAL

The Panama Canal connects the Atlantic and Pacific Ocean through a 40 mile (65km) canal through the Isthmus of Panama, saving ships from 2,000 to 8,000 nautical miles (depending on the journey) by allowing them to avoid sailing round the land mass of South America. 

The first attempt to construct the canal began in 1881, by the French company Compagnie Universelle du Canal Interocéanique, led by Ferdinand de Lesseps (1805-1984), who had led the building of the Suez Canal. Unfortunately, Lesseps had made many assumptions, leading to slow progress and significant loss of life on the project. The company collapsed in 1889, and after a brief resurgence, ceased to function by 1898.

Through the Spooner Act of 1902, the United States purchased the assets of the company, and following Panama’s declaration of independence, they negotiated the Hay–Bunau-Varilla Treaty, allowing the creation of the Panama Canal Zone in 1904. Better disease control and better selection of equipment and workforce meant the project was successfully completed, and the Panama Canal opened in 1914. Ownership of the Panama Canal changed during the twentieth century: originally owned by the United States, it was transferred to a joint US-Panamanian commission (the Panama Canal Commission) in 1979, before being transferred fully to Panama in 1999.

"Canal Project Is Feasible." New York Herald [European Edition], 5 May 1904

Reuter. "Panama Canal Now Open to Commerce." New York Herald [European Edition], 17 Aug. 1914

Navarro, Mireya, and New York Times Service. "High Hopes for Panama's Canal." International Herald Tribune [European Edition], 3 Sept. 1999
 

THE FORMATION OF THE UAE

In 1971, seven Gulf emirates formed a federation, creating the United Arab Emirates (UAE). The UAE consists of Abū Ẓaby (Abu Dhabi), Dubayy (Dubai), Al-Shāriqah (Sharjah), ʿAjmān, Umm al-Qaywayn, Raʾs al-Khaimah and Al-Fujayrah, with the city of Abu Dhabi serving as the capital.

Under a treaty signed in 1892, the United Kingdom promised to protect the Trucial Coast from all aggression by sea and to lend its good offices in case of land attack. In 1955, the United Kingdom effectively intervened on the side of Abu Dhabi in the latter's dispute with Saudi Arabia over the Buraymi oasis, control of which is now shared by Abu Dhabi and Oman.

When, in 1968, the United Kingdom announced its intention to withdraw its forces from the area, a decision to establish a federation of Arab emirates—embracing the seven Trucial States, Bahrain, and Qatar—was agreed on in principle. However, it proved impossible to reconcile the differences among all the members. Six Trucial States (excluding Ra's al-Khaimah) agreed on the establishment of the United Arab Emirates, which was officially proclaimed a sovereign, independent nation on 2 December 1971, with Ra's al-Khaimah joining in early 1972.

Adapted from: "United Arab Emirates." Worldmark Encyclopedia of the Nations, edited by Timothy L. Gall and Jeneen M. Hobby, 12th ed., vol. 4: Asia and Oceania, Gale, 2007, pp. 893-904

"6 Emirates Form Persian Gulf Union." International Herald Tribune [European Edition], 3 Dec. 1971

"The UAE Stands Tall as the Region's Financial Center." International Herald Tribune [European Edition], 23 Sept. 2003

Thomas, Landon, Jr. "In Dubai, Tallest Tower Casts a Long Shadow." International Herald Tribune [European Edition], 5 Jan. 2010



LEBANESE CIVIL WAR

During the early 1970s, Lebanon saw the rise of many social and political movements, sectarian militias and a growing presence of guerrilla groups. Escalating violence in the country proved too much for the state to control, especially between the Christian Phalangists and their leader Pierre Gemayel (1905-1984), and the LMN (Lebanese National Movement), a predominantly Muslim group led by Kamal Jumblatt (1917-1977).  Violence between Phalangists and the LNM escaletd after a Phalangist attack on a Palestinian refugee bus in 1975, starting a conflict that saw Beirut split between a Muslim west and Christian East. Stable negotiations were persistently undermined by in-fighting within communities and outside intervention, notably from Syria. 

In 1982, Bachir Gemayel (1947-1982) became president, having unified various militias into the Lebanese Forces. Three weeks later, he was assassinated, sparking retaliation from Christian militiamen that led to hundreds of deaths. Bashir’s brother Amine Gemayel (1942-present) was elected in 1982, but the violence did not recede. After many more years of violence and Gemayal stepping down in 1988, his successor General Michel Aoun (1933-present) accepted a ceasefire, and remained president until 1989, succeeded by René Moawad (1925-1989) who was assassinated later that year, in turn succeeded by Elias Hrawi (1926-2006). Conflict between Aoun and the LF led to more violence, though the civil war was generally regarded as finishing in 1990 when Syrian forces forced Aoun into exile.

"Lebanon's Complex Crisis." International Herald Tribune [European Edition], 26 May 1975

The Washington Post. "Lebanon on the Edge." International Herald Tribune [European Edition], November 11-12, 1989

Hijazi, Ihsan A. "For Once, Some Good News from the Mideast." International Herald Tribune [European Edition], 13 Dec. 1990



MUNICH OLYMPIC MASSACRE

Early on the morning of September 5, 1972, eight members of the Black September Organization (BSO) associated with Yasser Arafat’s (1929-2004) al-Fatah faction of the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO), dressed as athletes, gained entrance to the Olympic Village. Carrying their weapons in gym bags, they sought out the apartment building housing the Israeli athletes.

The terrorists then took nine Israelis hostage. At about 9:30 A.M. the terrorists opened negotiations with German authorities: the hostage takers demanded that Israel free 234 Arab prisoners and that West Germany release two German terrorist leaders imprisoned in Frankfurt. That evening the two sides reached a deal providing for a plane that would take both the terrorists and their hostages to Cairo.

Certain that the incident would end in the deaths of the hostages, German officials were determined to prevent the departure. At 3:00 A.M. on September 6, German sharpshooters opened fire on two terrorists who had just inspected the plane. After a bloody shoot-out, the incident had claimed the lives of 11 Israelis, 5 terrorists, and 1 German policeman.

Adapted from: Tucker, Spencer C. "Munich Olympic Games Massacre." Encyclopedia of Terrorism, edited by Peter Chalk, vol. 2, ABC-CLIO, 2013, pp. 515-517

Abramson, Jesse. "Arabs Kill Two Israelis at Olympics, Abduct Nine, Battle Police at Airfield." International Herald Tribune [European Edition], 6 Sept. 1972

Kirsch, Bernard. "When the Joy Ended at Munich." International Herald Tribune [European Edition], 6 Sept. 1972

Kirsch, Bernard. "Bonn Will Probe Massacre at Olympics; Slain Israelis Honored; Games Resume." International Herald Tribune [European Edition], 7 Sept. 1972



QATAR WORLD CUP 2022

In 2022, the FIFA World Cup will be held in the Middle East for the first time, taking place in Qatar. The decision was made in December 2010, with Qatar’s bid victorious over the bids of Australia, Japan, South Korea and the United States. 

Many concerns have been raised in response to the choice, mainly around the legal and cultural restrictions surrounding alcohol consumption in the country, and the impact that weather conditions will have on the tournament. While the World Cup is traditionally held in the middle of the calendar year, the temperatures in Qatar may make this unfeasible: controversy continues over the possibility of the tournament being played in the winter, which will be highly detrimental to the national club leagues throughout the world, especially Europe.

Wider concerns about bribery in the bidding and decision process and concerns over worker’s rights have also received media coverage: the uncovering of corruption within FIFA and multiple arrests of senior FIFA officials in 2015 has raised further questions, but as of 2017, the World Cup will go ahead in Qatar as planned.

Hughes, Rob. "FIFA Tilts Soccer's Future toward the East." International Herald Tribune [European Edition], 3 Dec. 2010

Doherty, Regan E., and Reuters. "Qatar Sees Opportunity in World Cup 2022." Middle East. International Herald Tribune [European Edition], 16 Dec. 2010

Borden, Sam. "Plan for a Cooler World Cup in Qatar in 2022 Draws Heat." International Herald Tribune [European Edition], 11 Sept. 2013



TUTANKHAMEN’S TOMB

The tomb of Tutankhamen was found by British archaeologist Howard Carter (1874-1939) in 1922, as part of larger project that systematically explored the Valley of the Kings in Egypt. Alongside the discovery of the gold portrait mask that has become one of the most recognisable artefacts in the world, the mummy was also adorned with various pieces of jewelry. The coffin itself had three nests, consisting of two outer layers of gold-covered wood, and an innermost coffin made of solid gold. 

The discovery was made by Carter, who had already made some significant discoveries in Egyptology, having discovered the tombs of Hatshepsut and Thutmose IV in 1902. In 1907 he began to work with fellow Egyptologist George Edward Stanhope Molyneux Herbert, 5th earl of Carnarvon (1866-1923), who chose Carter to supervise an excavation project in the Valley of the Kings. 

Tutankhamen’s tomb was opened on 26 November, after initial signs were found on November 4. For ten years afterwards, Carter supervised the removal of the contents of the burial chambers, which are now stored and displayed in the Egyptian Museum in Cairo.

"Tomb Fever Rises as Luxor Awaits Tutankh-Amen." New York Herald [European Edition], 27 Jan. 1923

"Mummy of Pharaoh Found in Splendid Gold Shrine." New York Herald [European Edition], 18 Feb. 1923

"Pharaoh's Tomb Reveals Splendor." New York Herald [European Edition], 19 Feb. 1923
 

MAN LANDS ON THE MOON

In 1961, president John F. Kennedy (1917-1963) called for more funding to support the United States’ space programme, after the launch and successful introduction into orbit of Sputnik 1 by Russia in 1957 initiated the ‘space race’. Kennedy set the target of landing a man on the moon by the end of the 1960s. After managing to successfully capture public opinion to help overcome the political barriers, president Lyndon B. Johnson (1908-1973) managed to continue the space programme after Kennedy’s assassination in 1963.

After several successful missions to launch men into space and orbit the moon during the decade, Apollo 11 became the first manned mission to land on the surface of the moon on July 20 1969. Astronauts Neil Armstrong (1930-2010) and Edwin Eugene “Buzz” Aldrin (1930-present) were the first humans to set foot on the lunar surface, the first of twenty-four to have travelled to the moon. Since the first manned moon landing, five more successful landings were made between 1969 and 1972.

Wise, David. "Kennedy Calls for More Aid, Stronger Forces, Lunar Trip." New York Herald Tribune [European Edition], 26 May 1961

"Who Will Be the First Man to Set Foot on the Moon?" International Herald Tribune [European Edition], January 11, 1969-January 12, 1969

Rossiter, Al, Jr. "Man on Moon." International Herald Tribune [European Edition], 21 July 1969



MARTIN LUTHER KING JR. ASSASSINATION

Martin Luther King Jr. (1929-1968) was the most prominent and visible civil rights campaigner of the 1950s and 1960s. A Baptist minister, he encouraged the Civil Rights Movement to progress through methods of nonviolence and civil disobedience.

He led many of the most notable activist activities of the time, including nonviolent protest in Alabama (1963), the March on Washington (1963), and the Selma marches (1965). He was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1964 for his work promoting racial equality, and posthumously awarded both the Presidential Medal of Freedom and the Congressional Gold Medal. Whilst in Memphis, Tennessee, planning the Poor People’s Campaign, he was assassinated by James Earl Ray (1928-1988). After the news broke, riots followed across the United States, and Ray fled the country – he was arrested in London two months later and sentenced to 99 years in prison.

Shortly after the assassination, the Civil Rights Act of 1968 was passed, removing many discriminatory limitations placed on minorities relating to housing. Internationally, his work was influential, cited by central figures in progressive movements in many countries where various forms of discrimination existed, including countries as distant as South Africa and Northern Ireland.

"Martin Luther King Is Killed by a Sniper." International Herald Tribune [European Edition], 5 Apr. 1968

Schumach, Murray. "Martin Luther King—1929-1968." International Herald Tribune [European Edition], April 6-7, 1968

"Day of Mourning." International Herald Tribune [European Edition], 8 Apr. 1968



QUEBEC SEPARATISM

Separatism in the mostly French-speaking province of Quebec has for almost half a century constituted the single biggest threat to the unity of Canada. The high watermark of the secessionist movement came in 1995 when the francophone Quebeckers, or Quebecois, came within a hair’s breadth of splitting away from Canada in a referendum. 

The Quebec independence movement gathered steam in the 1970s. A watershed moment for French Canadians came in 1976 when the separatist Parti Quebecois (PQ) won the provincial elections for the first time and entered government. It called a referendum on independence in 1980, but 60 percent of the voters rejected secession. In 1987, to try to persuade Quebec to ratify the constitution, the Canadian government signed the Meech Lake Accord in which Quebec was recognized as a “distinct society,” but the accord was never ratified as some English-speaking provinces opposed it. While many Quebecois are ardent secessionists, others passionately support a continued union with Canada. For example, two of Canada’s longest-serving prime ministers in recent years have been French-speaking Quebeckers who were among the fiercest campaigners against Quebec separatism. These were Pierre Trudeau (1919-2000) and Jean Chrétien (1934-present).

Adapted from: Beary, Brian. "Quebecois (Canada)." Separatist Movements: A Global Reference, CQ Press, 2011, pp. 129-134

Giniger, Henry, and New York Times Service. "Canada Gets Its Own Constitution but Quebec Boycotts the Ceremony." International Herald Tribune [European Edition], 19 Apr. 1982

The Washington Post. "Trudeau's Departure." International Herald Tribune [European Edition], March 3, 1984-March 4, 1984

Trueheart, Charles. "Resounding 'No' Puts Quebec on Separatist Path." International Herald Tribune [European Edition], 28 Oct. 1992



SAN FRANCISCO EARTHQUAKE

On April 18 1906, a 7.9 magnitude earthquake hit the west coast of the United States. The most severe damage occurred in San Francisco, even though motion was felt as far south as Los Angeles and as far north as Oregon.

San Francisco had been hit by several earthquakes in the previous five decades, but 1906 was more destructive than the earthquakes in 1864, 1898 and 1900. Whilst the tremors from the earthquake caused significant destruction, they were followed by a fire that lasted for four days and flattened over 4 square miles (10 square km) in the centre of the city. Over 28,000 buildings were destroyed, and current estimates suggest over 3,000 people died, with over 250,000 left homeless. 

Large areas of the city were rebuilt over the following years, most importantly with increased emphasis on fire resistance. The culmination of the rebuilding work came in 1915, when San Francisco hosted the Panama-Pacific International Exposition, showcasing to the world the recovery that the city had made.

"Earthquake Devastates San Francisco." New York Herald [European Edition], 19 Apr. 1906

"San Francisco's Earthquake Disaster." New York Herald [European Edition], 19 Apr. 1906

[By Commercial Cable to the Herald]. "Fire Completes Destruction of Stricken San Francisco." New York Herald [European Edition], 20 Apr. 1906



THE WATERGATE SCANDAL

In June 1972, reports began to emerge of an attempted break-in at the Democratic National Committee (DNC) headquarters in the Watergate complex, Washington D.C, in the run up to president Richard Nixon’s (1913-1994) re-election campaign. Initially the White House denied any connection to the burglary attempt, but it was later uncovered through the ‘Nixon tapes’ that the president had asked the FBI to pull away from the investigation.

The White House managed to suppress press revelations about the administration’s involvement by suggesting the press had a vendetta against the government, and in pre-election polls, public trust levels in Nixon were above those for his opponent. Following the trial of the burglars, the Senate voted to start a committee investigating abuses in the 1972 election campaign, while the judge presiding over the burglary trial passed long sentences on the burglars, offering to reduce their sentences if they spoke freely to the Watergate grand jury.

As a result, revelations and information began to emerge, and despite repeated protests of his own innocence, the recorded conversations from the president’s office—finally released after public protest—revealed the depth of the president’s role in the scandal. To avoid being impeached, Nixon resigned in August 1974, becoming the first president to resign from office.

"Police Study Other Angles to Democratic HQ Break-In." International Herald Tribune [European Edition], 22 June 1972

Reston, James. "The Nixon Dilemma over Watergate Evidence." International Herald Tribune [European Edition], 26 Mar. 1973

Farris, Fred. "Nixon Quits." International Herald Tribune [European Edition], 9 Aug. 1974
 

AUSTRALIAN COMMONWEALTH

In 1889 the Federal Council of Australasia was established, after concerns around German and French presence in the Pacific had grown throughout the previous decade. During the 1890s, a series of conferences were called to discuss federalism, that were attended by the leaders of the various colonies. Support for federalism had grown by the 1891 conference, which led the drafting of a constitution being drawn up. The draft was nearly successful, but the process halted when New South Wales lapsed, and the remaining colonies decided not to proceed.

A new convention was called in 1895, and met several times between 1897 and 1898. A new draft constitution was created that added amends to the previous version, and after an initially unsuccessful submission, a further amended version was ratified by five colonies (but not Western Australia), and submitted to the Imperial Parliament with a request for Queen Victoria to enact the Bill.

The Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act was passed by British Parliament in 1900, with Western Australia agreeing to join in time to become a member of the Commonwealth. The Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act became law on July 9 1900, and the Commonwealth was officially established on January 1 1901.

"Commonwealth of Australia." New York Herald [European Edition], 16 May 1900

"Birth of a New Commonwealth." New York Herald [European Edition], 25 May 1900

Daily Mail. "Australia Now United." New York Herald [European Edition], 2 Jan. 1901



THE CHRISTCHURH EARTHQUAKE

The Christchurch earthquakes hit New Zealand in a series of events from September 2010 through to December 2011. The most devastating event in the series came in the magnitude 7 earthquake that struck in September 2010. The epicentre of the earthquake occurred 25 miles (40km) west of Christchurch, after a movement along a previously unknown regional fault line, causing the initial earthquake and several aftershocks for months afterwards.

The most significant aftershock occurred on the 22 February 2011, causing major damage to the city, especially to buildings and areas that had been weakened by the earthquake the previous September. The most notable building to collapse was the Canterbury Television building, and major damage was sustained by the both the Roman Catholic and Anglican cathedrals (the latter was so damaged that a decision to have it demolished was made in 2012).

More than 180 people are estimated to have died, and a state of national emergency was declared the next day. Over the coming weeks and months, over 10,000 homes around in and around the city were declared unsalvageable, and areas of damaged land abandoned completely.

News Reports. "7.4 Quake Strikes New Zealand." International Herald Tribune [European Edition], September 4, 2010-September 5, 2010

Foley, Meraiah. "Search for New Zealand Victims Goes On." International Herald Tribune [European Edition], 23 Feb. 2011

Berenstein, Erica, and Meraiah Foley. "New Zealand Takes Stock." International Herald Tribune [European Edition], 24 Feb. 2011



THE FIRST FIJIAN COUP

In 1985 Fiji's national politics changed forever with the formation of the Fiji Labor Party (FLP). Its inaugural president was a Fijian from the west, Dr. Timoci Bavadra (1934-1989), a retired community health specialist. As the 1987 general election approached, the FLP decided to form a coalition with the National Federation Party (NFP). After a successful election, Bavadra was sworn in as Fiji's second prime minister on April 13, 1987.

Parliament was in its third day of sitting when the drama that is now called "the first coup" unfolded, but Fijian anti-coalition sentiment arose as soon as the election results were announced. Though the Fijian community was divided along regional, social class, and other lines, it has never been difficult to gather large groups against a perceived threat of Indo-Fijian control. The Taukei (roughly, "ethnic Fijian") Movement articulated and organized this sentiment. Despite the actual and threatened unrest that followed the election, the coalition did not crumble until Sitiveni Rabuka (1948-present) made his move and initiated a coup on May 14, 1987. Rabuka led a second and more tightly controlled coup on September 25, 1987. A curfew was imposed, communications with the outside world were restricted, and some 200 individuals who were perceived as unfriendly to the Taukei Movement were detained. Rabuka declared Fiji a republic, with himself as head of an interim government.

Adapted from: Ogan, Eugen. "Overthrowing Democracy: Fiji's Coup." History Behind the Headlines: The Origins of Conflicts Worldwide, edited by Sonia G. Benson, et al., vol. 3, Gale, 2002, pp. 124-134

Compiled by Our Staff from Dispatches. "Colonel, Troops Seize Power in Fiji, Citing Racial Unrest after Election." International Herald Tribune [European Edition], 15 May 1987

Compiled by Our Staff from Dispatches. "Fiji Ruled by Civilians Once Again." International Herald Tribune [European Edition], 7 Dec. 1987

The Associated Press. "Deposed Fiji Leader, Timoci Bavadra, 55, Dies." International Herald Tribune [European Edition], November 4-5, 1989



SAMOA’S INDEPENDENCE

Samoa was initially annexed by the United States and Germany in 1889, with Germany taking the west and the U.S. taking the east. The annexation was done without the support of the Samoan people, which elevated tensions that had been growing since the 1850s as the U.S., Britain and Germany had been preventing Samoa form developing their own government.

After the Mau a Pule movement failed to reduce German rule on the western side, New Zealand occupied Western Samoa in 1914, and the League of Nations granted New Zealand a mandate over the country in 1920. As a result, the Mau movement developed in opposition: after the original Mau leader Olaf Frederick Nelson (1883-1944) was exiled, relations deteriorated after unarmed Mau supporters were killed during a demonstration in 1929.

After the first Labour government came to power in New Zealand in 1935 and recognised the Mau as a legitimate political organization, relations improved, and amid growing Samoan desire for independence, a constitutional convention was called in 1954. Samoa gained independence from New Zealand in 1962, but has retained a place in the Commonwealth. Independence was followed by universal suffrage in 1990, and 1997 had the ‘Western’ removed, a move contested by neighbouring American Samoa.

Special to the Herald Tribune. "Western Samoa Faces Freedom." New York Herald Tribune [European Edition], December 16, 1961-December 17, 1961

United Press International. "West Samoa Is Independent; Last Place to Welcome '62." New York Herald Tribune [European Edition], 1 Jan. 1962

"Western Samoan Parliament Holds Its First Meeting." New York Herald Tribune [European Edition], 3 Jan. 1962



SYDNEY OPERA HOUSE

The Sydney Opera House is located on Port Jackson in Sydney Harbour, situated on Bennelong Point, a promontory on the south side of the harbour just east of the Sydney Harbour Bridge. The building began with an international competition run by the New South Wales government in 1956, to design a new venue that included a main hall for large productions and a second for smaller, more intimate productions. 233 entries were submitted from over 30 countries, with Danish architect Jørn Utzon (1918-2008) providing the winning entry.

The building did not go smoothly: construction began in 1959, but the innovative design led to overspending and engineering difficulties, causing many delays that turned public opinion against the project. Disagreements with government authorities saw Utzon resign from the project in 1966, with the remainder of the construction overseen by a structural engineering firm. Utzon did return in 1999 to oversee an improvement project, his last engagement with the building before his death in 2008. The building was officially opened in October 1973, and the main hall now holds over 2,500 people for performances across the arts. One of Sydney's—and Australia's—most recognised and iconic buildings, it was declared a UNESCO World Heritage site in 2007.

Cable Dispatches. "Australians Row over Opera." New York Herald Tribune [European Edition], 4 Mar. 1966

Wire Dispatches. "The Queen Launches Sydney Opera House." International Herald Tribune [European Edition], 22 Oct. 1973

Richardson, Michael. "After 25 Years, Sydney Embraces Jorn Utzon." International Herald Tribune [European Edition], 28 Sept. 2000